Chapter 41 Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases

Equine Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders

Pituitary and Hypothalamus

Dardente H. 2012. Melatonin-dependent timing of seasonal reproduction by the pars tuberalis: pivotal roles for long daylengths and thyroid hormones. J Neuroendocrinol 24:249. PUBMED Abstract
Saland LC. 2001. The mammalian pituitary intermediate lobe: an update on innervation and regulation. Brain Res Bull 54:587. PUBMED Abstract
Luppi PH, Sakai K, Salvert D, et al. 1986. Periventricular dopaminergic neurons terminating in the neuro-intermediate lobe of the cat hypophysis. J Comp Neurol 244:204. PUBMED Abstract
Saiardi A, Borrelli E. 1998. Absence of dopaminergic control on melanotrophs leads to Cushing's-like syndrome in mice. Mol Endocrinol 12:1133. PUBMED Abstract
Malven PV. 1997. Pituitary gland neuroendocrinology. Proceedings of the 15th Annual Forum of the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine. Proceeding #229-230. May 22-25, Orlando, FL.
McFarlane D, Beech J, Cribb A. 2006. Alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone release in response to thyrotropin releasing hormone in healthy horses, horses with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction and equine pars intermedia explants. Domest Anim Endocrinol 30:276. PUBMED Abstract
Millington WR, Dybdal NO, Dawson R Jr, et al. 1988. Equine Cushing's disease: differential regulation of β-endorphin processing in tumors of the intermediate pituitary. Endocrinol 123:1598. PUBMED Abstract
Marklund L, Moller MJ, Sandberg K, et al. 1996. A missense mutation in the gene for melanocyte-stimulating hormone receptor (MC1R) is associated with the chestnut coat color in horses. Mamm Genome 7:895. PUBMED Abstract
Altmeyer P, Holzmann H, Stohr L, et al. 1984. The relationship between alpha-MSH level and coat color in white Camarque horses. J Invest Dermatol 82:199. PUBMED Abstract
Nahon JL. 2006. The melanocortins and melanin-concentrating hormone in the central regulation of feeding behavior and energy homeostasis. C R Biol 329:623. PUBMED Abstract
Clement K. 2006. Genetics of human obesity. C R Biol 329:608. PUBMED Abstract
Katsuki A, Sumida Y, Murashima S, et al. 2000. Elevated plasma levels of alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (alpha-MSH) are correlated with insulin resistance in obese men. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 24:1260. PUBMED Abstract
Donaldson MT, McFarlane D, Jorgensen AJ, et al. 2004. Correlation between plasma alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone concentration and body mass index in healthy horses. Am J Vet Res 65:1469. PUBMED Abstract
Catania A, Lipton JM. 1993. Alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone in the modulation of host reactions. Endocr Rev 14:564. PUBMED Abstract
Taylor AW. 2005. The immunomodulating neuropeptide alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (alpha-MSH) suppresses LPS-stimulated TLR4 with IRAK-M in macrophages. J Neuroimmunol 162:43. PUBMED Abstract
Manna SK, Sarkar A, Sreenivasan Y. 2006. Alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone down-regulates CXC receptors through activation of neutrophil elastase. Eur J Immunol 36:754. PUBMED Abstract
Oktar BK, Yüksel M, Alican I. 2004. The role of cyclooxygenase inhibition in the effect of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone on reactive oxygen species production by rat peritoneal neutrophils. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 71:1. PUBMED Abstract
Sacerdote P, Gaspani L, Panerai AE. 2001. Role of beta-endorphin in the modulation of immune responses: perspectives in autoimmune diseases. Adv Exp Med Biol 493:137. PUBMED Abstract
Dunbar JC, Lu H. 2000. Proopiomelanocortin (POMC) products in the central regulation of sympathetic and cardiovascular dynamics: studies on melanocortin and opioid interactions. Peptides 21:211. PUBMED Abstract
Beevor S, Beloff-Chain A, Donaldson A, et al. 1978. Pituitary intermediate lobe function in genetically obese (ob/ob) and lean mice [proceedings]. J Physiol 275:55P. PUBMED Abstract
Bailey CJ, Flatt PR. 1987. Insulin releasing effects of adrenocorticotropin (ACTH 1-39) and ACTH fragments (1-24 and 18-39) in lean and genetically obese hyperglycaemic (ob/ob) mice. Int J Obes 11:175. PUBMED Abstract
McFarlane D, Donaldson MT, McDonnell SM, et al. 2004. Effects of season and sample handling on measurement of plasma alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone concentrations in horses and ponies. Am J Vet Res 65:1463. PUBMED Abstract
Schreiber CM, Stewart AJ, Kwessi E, et al. 2012. Seasonal variation in results of diagnostic tests for pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction in older, clinically normal geldings. J Am Vet Med Assoc 241:241. PUBMED Abstract
Cordero M, Brorsen BW, McFarlane D. 2012. Circadian and circannual rhythms of cortisol, ACTH, and α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone in healthy horses. Domest Anim Endocrinol 43:317. PUBMED Abstract
Copas VE, Durham AE. 2012. Circannual variation in plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone concentrations in the UK in normal horses and ponies, and those with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction. Equine Vet J 44:440. PUBMED Abstract
McFarlane D, Paradis MR, Zimmel D, et al. 2011. The effect of geographic location, breed, and pituitary dysfunction on seasonal adrenocorticotropin and α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone plasma concentrations in horses. J Vet Intern Med 25:872. PUBMED Abstract
Funk RA, Stewart AJ, Wooldridge AA, et al. 2011. Seasonal changes in plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone and α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone in response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone in normal, aged horses. J Vet Intern Med 25:579. PUBMED Abstract
Spelta CW, Axon JE. 2012. Case series of equine pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction in a tropical climate. Aust Vet J 90:451. PUBMED Abstract
Altmeyer R, Stohr L, Holzmann H. 1986. Seasonal rhythm of the plasma level of alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone. J Invest Dermatol 86:454. PUBMED Abstract
Lincoln GA, Rhind SM, Pompolo S, et al. 2001. Hypothalamic control of photoperiod-induced cycles in food intake, body weight, and metabolic hormones in rams. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 281:R76. PUBMED Abstract
Logan A, Weatherhead B. 1979. Photoperiodic dependence of seasonal variations in melanocyte-stimulating hormone content of the pituitary gland in the Siberian hamster (Phodopus sungorus) (abstract). J Endocrinol 83:41P.
Brosnahan MM, Paradis MR. 2003. Assessment of clinical characteristics, management practices, and activities of geriatric horses. J Am Vet Med Assoc 223:99. PUBMED Abstract
McGowan TW, Pinchbeck G, Phillips CJ, et al. 2010. A survey of aged horses in Queensland, Australia. Part 2: Clinical signs and owners' perceptions of health and welfare. Aust Vet J 88:465. PUBMED Abstract
Ireland JL, Clegg PD, McGowan CM, et al. 2012. Disease prevalence in geriatric horses in the United Kingdom: veterinary clinical assessment of 200 cases. Equine Vet J 44:101. PUBMED Abstract
Orth DN, Holscher MA, Wilson MG, et al. 1982. Equine Cushing's disease: plasma immunoreactive proopiolipomelanocortin peptide and cortisol levels basally and in response to diagnostic tests. Endocrinol 110:1430.
Donaldson MT, LaMonte BH, Morresey P, et al. 2002. Treatment with pergolide or cyproheptadine of pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction (equine Cushing's disease). J Vet Intern Med 16:742. PUBMED Abstract
Perkins GA, Lamb S, Erb HN, et al. 2002. Plasma adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) concentrations and clinical response in horses treated for equine Cushing's disease with cyproheptadine or pergolide. Equine Vet J 34:679. PUBMED Abstract
Schott HC, Coursen CL, Eberhart SW, et al. 2001. The Michigan Cushing's Project, Proceedings of the 47th Annual Convention of the American Association of Equine Practitioners, p 22. San Diego, CA.
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McFarlane D, Dybdal N, Donaldson MT, et al. 2005. Nitration and increased alpha-synuclein expression associated with dopaminergic neurodegeneration in equine pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction. J Neuroendocrinol 17:73. PUBMED Abstract
Goudreau JL, Falls WM, Lookingland KJ, et al. 1995. Periventricular-hypophysial dopaminergic neurons innervate the intermediate but not the neural lobe of the rat pituitary gland. Neuroendocrinol 62:147. PUBMED Abstract
Keen JA, McLaren M, Chandler KJ, et al. 2004. Biochemical indices of vascular function, glucose metabolism and oxidative stress in horses with equine Cushing's disease. Equine Vet J 36:226. PUBMED Abstract
McFarlane D, Cribb AE. 2005. Systemic and pituitary pars intermedia antioxidant capacity associated with pars intermedia oxidative stress and dysfunction in horses. Am J Vet Res 66:2065. PUBMED Abstract
Schott HC. 2002. Pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction: equine Cushing's disease. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 18:237. PUBMED Abstract
McFarlane D. 2011. Equine pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 27:93. PUBMED Abstract
Hillyer MH, Taylor FRG, Mair TS, et al. 1992. Diagnosis of hyperadrenocorticism in the horse. Equine Vet Educ 4:131.
Couetil L, Paradis MR, Knoll J. 1996. Plasma adrenocorticotropin concentration in healthy horses and in horses with clinical signs of hyperadrenocorticism. J Vet Intern Med 10:1. PUBMED Abstract
van der Kolk JH, Kalsbveek HC, van Garderen E, et al. 1993. Equine pituitary neoplasia: a clinical report of 21 cases (1990-1992). Vet Record 133:594. PUBMED Abstract
Donaldson MT, Jorgensen AJ, Beech J. 2004. Evaluation of suspected pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction in horses with laminitis. J Am Vet Med Assoc 224:1123. PUBMED Abstract
Karikoski NP, Horn I, McGowan TW, et al. 2011. The prevalence of endocrinopathic laminitis among horses presented for laminitis at a first opinion/referral equine hospital. Domest Anim Endocrinol 41:111. PUBMED Abstract
Asplin KE, Sillence MN, Pollitt CC, et al. 2007. Induction of laminitis by prolonged hyperinsulinaemia in clinically normal ponies. Vet J 174:530. PUBMED Abstract
de Laat MA, McGowan CM, Sillence MN, et al. 2010. Equine laminitis: induced by 48 h hyperinsulinaemia in Standardbred horses. Equine Vet J 42:129. PUBMED Abstract
de Laat MA, Sillence MN, McGowan CM, et al. 2012. Continuous intravenous infusion of glucose induces endogenous hyperinsulinaemia and lamellar histopathology in Standardbred horses. Vet J 191:317. PUBMED Abstract
de Laat MA, van Eps AW, McGowan CM, et al. 2011. Equine laminitis: comparative histopathology 48 hours after experimental induction with insulin or alimentary oligofructose in Standardbred horse. J Comp Pathol 145:399. PUBMED Abstract
Carter RA, Treiber KH, Geor RJ, et al. 2009. Prediction of incipient pasture-associated laminitis from hyperinsulinaemia, hyperleptinaemia and generalised and localised obesity in a cohort of ponies. Equine Vet J 41:171. PUBMED Abstract
de Laat MA, McGowan CM, Sillence MN, et al. 2010. Hyperinsulinemic laminitis. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 26:257. PUBMED Abstract
Aleman M, Watson JL, Williams DC, et al. 2006. Myopathy in horses with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction. Neuromuscul Disord 16:737. PUBMED Abstract
Boujon CE, Bestetti GE, Meier HP, et al. 1993. Equine pituitary adenoma: a functional and morphological study. J Comp Pathol 109:163. PUBMED Abstract
Heinrichs M, Baumgartner W, Capen CC. 1990. Immunocytochemical demonstration of proopiomelanocortin-derived peptides in pituitary adenomas of the pars intermedia in horses. Vet Pathol 27:419. PUBMED Abstract
Biewenga WJ, Rijnberk A, Mol JA. 1991. Osmoregulation of systemic vasopressin release during long-term glucocorticoid excess: a study in dogs with hyperadrenocorticism. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 124:58. PUBMED Abstract
McFarlane D, Hale GM, Johnson EM, et al. 2010. Fecal egg counts after anthelmintic administration to aged horses and horses with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction. J Am Vet Med Assoc 236:330. PUBMED Abstract
Glover C, Miller LM, Dybdal NO, et al. 2009. Extrapituitary and pituitary pathological changes in horses with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction, a retrospective study. J Equine Vet Sci 29:146.
Dybdal NO, Hargreaves KM, Madigan JE, et al. 1994. Diagnostic testing for pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction in horses. J Am Vet Med Assoc 204:627. PUBMED Abstract
McFarlane D, Breshears MA, Cordero M, et al. 2012. Comparison of plasma ACTH concentration, α-MSH concentration and overnight dexamethasone suppression test for diagnosis of PPID. Proceedings of American College of Veterinary Medicine Forum, May 30-Jun 2. New Orleans, LA.
Horowitz ML, Neal L, Watson JL. 2003. Characteristics of plasma adrenocorticotropin, α-endorphin and α-melanocyte stimulating hormone as diagnostic tests for pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction in the horse (abstract). J Vet Intern Med 17:386.
Beech J, Boston RC, McFarlane D, et al. 2009. Evaluation of plasma ACTH, alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, and insulin concentrations during various photoperiods in clinically normal horses and ponies and those with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction. J Am Vet Med Assoc 235:715. PUBMED Abstract
Beech J, Boston R, Linborg S. 2011. Comparison of cortisol and ACTH responses after administration of thyrotropin releasing hormone in normal horses and those with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction. J Vet Intern Med 25:1431. PUBMED Abstract
Beech J, McFarlane D, Lindbourg S, et al. 2011. α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone and adrenocorticotropin concentrations in response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone and comparison with adrenocorticotropin concentration after domperidone administration in healthy horses and horses with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction. J Am Vet Med Assoc 238:1305. PUBMED Abstract
Beech J, Boston R, Lindborg S, et al. 2007. Adrenocorticotropin concentration following administration of thyrotropin-releasing hormone in healthy horses and those with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction and pituitary gland hyperplasia. J Am Vet Med Assoc 231:417. PUBMED Abstract
Beech J, Garcia M. 1985. Hormonal response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone in healthy horses and in horses with pituitary adenoma. Am J Vet Res 46:1941. PUBMED Abstract
Cordero M, Shrauner B, McFarlane D. 2011. Bioactivity of plasma ACTH from horses with PPID compared to normal horses (abstract). J Vet Intern Med 25:664.
Orth DN, Nicolson WE. 1982. Bioactive and immunoreactive adrenocorticotropin in normal equine pituitary and in pituitary tumors of horses with Cushing's disease. Endocrinology 111:559. PUBMED Abstract
Donaldson MT, McDonnell SM, Schanbacher BJ, et al. 2004. Variation in plasma ACTH concentration and dexamethasone suppression test results with season, age and sex in healthy ponies and horses. J Vet Intern Med 19:217. PUBMED Abstract
Place NJ, McGowan CM, Lamb SV, et al. 2010. Seasonal variation in serum concentrations of selected metabolic hormones in horses. J Vet Intern Med 24:650. PUBMED Abstract
Allen JR, Barbee DD, Crisman MV. 1988. Diagnosis of equine pituitary tumors by computed tomography—part 1. Compend Contin Educ Pract Vet 10:1103.
McKlveen TL, Jones JC, Sponenberg DP, et al. 2003. Assessment of the accuracy of computed tomography for measurement of normal equine pituitary glands. Am J Vet Res 64:1387. PUBMED Abstract
Pease AP, Schott HC, Howey EB, et al. 2011. Computed tomographic findings in the pituitary gland and brain of horses with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction. J Vet Intern Med 25:1144. PUBMED Abstract
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van der Kolk JH, Heinrichs M, van Amerongen JD, et al. 2004. Evaluation of pituitary gland anatomy and histopathologic findings in clinically normal horses and horses and ponies with pituitary pars intermedia adenoma. Am J Vet Res 65:1701. PUBMED Abstract
McFarlane D, Miller LM, Craig LE, et al. 2005. Agreement in histologic assessments of the pituitary pars intermedia in aged horses. Am J Vet Res 66:2055. PUBMED Abstract
Cordero M, McFarlane D, Breshears M, et al. 2012. The effect of season on histologic and histomorphometric appearance of the equine pituitary gland. J Equine Vet Res 32:75.
Miller MA, Pardo ID, Jackson LP, et al. 2008. Correlation of pituitary hisomorphometry with adrenocorticotropic hormone response to domperidone administration in the diagnosis of equine pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction. Vet Path 45:26. PUBMED Abstract

Adrenal Glands

Hardee G, Wang Lai J, Semrad S, et al. 1982. Catecholamines in equine and bovine plasmas. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 5:279. PUBMED Abstract
Hoffsis G, Murdick P, Tharp V, et al. 1970. Plasma concentrations of cortisol and corticosterone in the normal horse. Am J Vet Res 31:1379. PUBMED Abstract
Wiebke A, Stewart P. 2005. Adrenal corticosteroid biosynthesis, metabolism, and action. Endocr Metab Clin N Am 34:293. PUBMED Abstract
Adcock R, Kattesh H, Robert M, et al. 2006. Relationships between plasma cortisol, corticosteroid-binding globulin (CBG) and the free cortisol index (FCI) in pigs over a 24 hour period. J Anim Vet Adv 5:85. PUBMED Abstract
Irvine C, Alexander S. 1987. Measurement of free cortisol and the capacity and association constant of cortisol-binding proteins in plasma of foals and adult horses. J Reprod Fert Suppl 35:19. PUBMED Abstract
Lewis J, Bagley C, Elder P, et al. 2005. Plasma free cortisol fraction reflects levels of functioning corticosteroid-binding globulin. Clin Chim Acta 359:189. PUBMED Abstract
Meyer H, Rothuizen J. 1993. Determination of the percentage of free cortisol in plasma in the dog by ultrafiltration/dialysis. Dom An Endocrin 10:45. PUBMED Abstract
Rijnberk A, Mol J. 1997. Adrenocortical function, pp 553-570. In Kaneko J, Harvey J, Bruss M (eds), Clinical biochemistry of domestic animals, ed 5. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
Alexander S, Irvine C, Donald R. 1996. Dynamics of the regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis determined using a nonsurgical method for collecting pituitary venous blood from horses. Front Neuroendocrinol 17:1. PUBMED Abstract
Lefcourt A, Bitman J, Kahl S, et al. 1993. Circadian and ultradian rhythms of peripheral cortisol concentrations in lactating dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 76:2607. PUBMED Abstract
Stewart P. 2008. The adrenal cortex, pp 445-503. In Kronenberg H, Melmed S, Polonsky K, et al (eds), Williams textbook of endocrinology, ed 11. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA.
Hart K, Dirikolu L, Ferguson D, et al. 2012. Daily endogenous cortisol production and hydrocortisone pharmacokinetics in adult horses and neonatal foals. Am J Vet Res 73:68. PUBMED Abstract
Hart K. 2012. ACTH and cortisol secretion patterns during illness in horses and foals, unpublished data.
Bousquet-Melou A, Formentini E, Picard-Hagen N, et al. 2006. The adrenocorticotropin stimulation test: contribution of a physiologically based model developed in horse for its interpretation in different pathophysiologic situations encountered in man. Endocrinology 147:4281. PUBMED Abstract
Martin L, Behrend E, Mealey K, et al. 2007. Effect of low doses of cosyntropin in serum cortisol concentrations in clinically normal dogs. Am J Vet Res 268:555. PUBMED Abstract
Stewart A, Behrend E, Wright J, et al. 2011. Validation of a low-dose ACTH stimulation test in healthy adult horses. J Am Vet Med Assoc 239:834. PUBMED Abstract
Silver M, Ousey J, Dudan F, et al. 1984. Studies on equine prematurity 2: postnatal adrenocortical activity in relation to plasma adrenocorticotrophic hormone and catecholamine levels in term and premature foals. Equine Vet J 16:278.
Silver M, Fowden A. 1994. Prepartum adrenocortical maturation in the fetal foal: responses to ACTH. J Endocrinol 142:417. PUBMED Abstract
Ousey J, Rossdale P, Fowden A, et al. 2004. Effects of manipulating intrauterine growth on post natal adrenocortical development and other parameters of maturity in neonatal foals. Equine Vet J 36:616. PUBMED Abstract
Rossdale P, Ousey J. 1984. Studies on equine prematurity 6: guidelines for assessment of foal maturity. Equine Vet J 16:300. PUBMED Abstract
Han X, Fowden A, Silver M, et al. 1995. Immunohistochemical localisation of steroidogenic enzymes and phenylethanolamine-N-methyl-transferase (PNMT) in the adrenal gland of the fetal and newborn foal. Equine Vet J 27:140. PUBMED Abstract
Weng Q, Tanaka Y, Taniyama H, et al. 2007. Immunolocalization of steroidogenic enzymes in equine fetal adrenal glands during mid-late gestation. J Reprod Devel 53:1093. PUBMED Abstract
Riley S, Boshier D, Luu-The V, et al. 1992. Immunohistochemical localization of 3 beta-hydroxysteroid/delta 5-delta 4-isomerase, tyrosine hydroxylase, and phenylethanolamine N-methyl transferase in adrenal glands of sheep fetuses throughout gestation and in neonates. J Reprod Fertil 96:127. PUBMED Abstract
Donaldson M, McDonnell S, Schanbacher B, et al. 2005. Variation in plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone concentration and dexamethasone suppression test results with season, age, and sex in healthy ponies and horses. J Vet Intern Med 19:217. PUBMED Abstract
Hart K, Heusner G, Norton N, et al. 2009. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis assessment in healthy term neonatal foals utilizing a paired low dose/high dose ACTH stimulation test. J Vet Intern Med 23:344. PUBMED Abstract
Irvine C, Alexander S. 1994. Factors affecting the circadian rhythm in plasma cortisol concentrations in the horse. Domest Anim Endocrinol 11:227. PUBMED Abstract
Hedberg Y, Dalin A, Forsberg M, et al. 2007. Effect of ACTH (tetracosactide) on steroid hormone levels in the mare. Part A: effect in intact normal mares and mares with possible estrous related behavioral abnormalities. Anim Reprod Sci 100:73. PUBMED Abstract
Place N, McGowan C, Lamb S, et al. 2010. Seasonal variation in serum concentrations of selected metabolic hormones in horses. J Vet Intern Med 24:650. PUBMED Abstract
Silver M, Fowden A, Know J, et al. 1987. Sympathoadrenal and other responses to hypoglycaemia in the young foal. J Reprod Fertil Suppl 35:607. PUBMED Abstract
Wong D, Vo D, Alcott C, et al. 2009. Adrenocorticotropic hormone stimulation tests in healthy foals from birth to 12 weeks of age. Can J Vet Res 73:65. PUBMED Abstract
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Rokicki W, Forest M, Loras B, et al. 1990. Free cortisol of human plasma in the first three months of life. Biol Neonate 57:21. PUBMED Abstract
Stahl F, Amendt P, Dorner G. 1979. Total and free cortisol plasma levels in pre- and post-natal life. Endokrinologie 74:243. PUBMED Abstract
Bright G. 1995. Corticosteroid-binding globulin influences kinetic parameters of plasma cortisol transport and clearance. J Clin Endocrin Metab 80:770. PUBMED Abstract
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Guthrie G, Cecil S, Darden E, et al. 1981. Dynamics of renin and aldosterone in the Thoroughbred horse. Gen Comp Endocrinol 48:296. PUBMED Abstract
Young W. 2008. Endocrine hypertension, pp 505-537. In Kronenberg H, Melmed S, Polonsky K, et al (eds), Williams textbook of endocrinology, ed 11. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA.
Harris P. 1993. Preliminary investigations that affect plasma aldosterone concentrations in horses. Res Vet Sci 54:319. PUBMED Abstract
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Broughton Pipkin F, Ousey J, Wallace C, et al. 1984. Studies on equine prematurity 4: effect of salt and water loss on the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system in the newborn foal. Equine Vet J 16:292. PUBMED Abstract
Hollis A, Boston R, Corley K. 2008. Plasma aldosterone, vasopressin, and atrial natriuretic peptide in hypovolaemia: a preliminary comparative study of neonatal and mature horses. Equine Vet J 40:64. PUBMED Abstract
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Marik P. 2009. Critical illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency. Chest 135:181. PUBMED Abstract
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Couetil L, Hoffman A. 1998. Adrenal insufficiency in a neonatal foal. J Am Vet Med Assoc 212:1594. PUBMED Abstract
Gold J, Divers T, Barton M, et al. 2007. Plasma adrenocorticotropin, cortisol, and adrenocorticotropin/cortisol ratios in septic and normal-term foals. J Vet Intern Med 21:791. PUBMED Abstract
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Levin J, Cluff L. 1965. Endotoxemia and adrenal hemorrhage. A mechanism for the Waterhouse-Friderichsen sydrome. J Exp Med 1:247. PUBMED Abstract
Paradis M. 2008. Waterhouse-Friderichsen syndrome in neonatal foals: post-mortem findings in 19 foals. Proceedings of the Dorothy Russell Havenmeyer Foundation Equine Neonatal Septicemia Workshop V, Salem, MA.
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Gaillard R. 2003. Interactions between the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and the immunological system, pp 109-135. In Gaillard R (ed), The ACTH axis: pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, MA.
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Aubry J, Turnbull A, Pozzoli G, et al. 1997. Endotoxin decreases corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 1 messenger ribonucleic acid levels in the rat pituitary. Endocrinology 138:1621. PUBMED Abstract
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Hart K, Barton M, Norton N, et al. 2012. Demonstration of endogenous inflammatory cytokine production by equine adrenocortical tissue in an ex vivo model. Annual Forum of the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine, New Orleans, LA.
Gold J, Cohen N, Welsh T. 2010. Correlation of adrenocorticotropin and cortisol with peripheral leukocyte cytokine expression in septic and non-septic neonatal foals. Annual Forum American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine, June 9-12, Anaheim, CA.
Liu L, Sun B, Tian Y, et al. 1993. Changes of pulmonary glucocorticoid receptor and phospholipase A2 in sheep with acute lung injury. Am Rev Respir Dis 148:878. PUBMED Abstract
Liu D, Su Y, Zhang W, et al. 2002. Changes in glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptors of liver and kidney cytosols after pathologic stress and its regulation in rats. Crit Care Med 30:623. PUBMED Abstract
Meduri G, Muthiah M, Carratu P, et al. 2005. Nuclear factor-kβ- and glucocorticoid receptor α-mediated mechanisms in the regulation of systemic and pulmonary inflammation during sepsis and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Neuroimmunodulation 12:321.
Martin L. 2011. Critical illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency in small animals. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 41:767. PUBMED Abstract
Corley K, Donaldson L, Furr M. 2005. Arterial lactate concentration, hospital survival, sepsis, and SIRS, in critically ill neonatal foals. Equine Vet J 37:53. PUBMED Abstract
Epstein K, Brainard B, Gomez-Ibanez S, et al. 2011. Thromboelastography in horses with acute gastrointestinal disease. J Vet Intern Med 25:307. PUBMED Abstract
Singh A, Jiang Y, White T, et al. 1997. Validation of nonradioactive chemiluminescent immunoassay methods for the analysis of thyroxine and cortisol in blood samples obtained from dogs, cats, and horses. J Vet Diagn Invest 9:261. PUBMED Abstract
Flisinska-Bojanowska A, Grzelkowska K. 1992. Diurnal changes in cortisol level, neutrophil number, and lysozyme activity in foals during the first 13 weeks of life and in their lactating mothers. J Vet Med 39:641. PUBMED Abstract
Kozyra E, Wax R, Burry L. 2005. Can 1 μg of cosyntropin be used to evaluate adrenal insufficiency in critically ill patients? Ann Pharmacother 39:691. PUBMED Abstract
Hart K, Ferguson D, Heusner G, et al. 2007. Synthetic adrenocorticotropic hormone stimulation tests in healthy neonatal foals. J Vet Intern Med 21:314. PUBMED Abstract
Alexander S, Roud H, Irvine C. 1997. Effect of insulin-induced hypoglycemia on secretion patterns and rates of corticotropin-releasing hormone, arginine vasopressin and adrenocorticotrophin in horses. J Endocrinol 153:401. PUBMED Abstract
Reijerkerk E, Visser E, van Reenen C, et al. 2009. Effects of various doses of ovine corticotrophin-releasing hormone on plasma and saliva cortisol concentrations in the horse. Am J Vet Res 70:361. PUBMED Abstract
Luna S, Taylor P, Wheeler M. 1996. Cardiorespiratory, endocrine and metabolic changes in ponies undergoing intravenous or inhalation anaesthesia. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 19:251. PUBMED Abstract
Cohen J, Venkatesh B. 2009. Assessment of tissue cortisol activity. Crit Care Resusc 11:287. PUBMED Abstract
Fernandez E, Watterberg K. 2009. Relative adrenal insufficiency in the preterm and term infant. J Perinatol 29:S44. PUBMED Abstract
Annane D, Sebille V, Charpentier C, et al. 2002. Effect of treatment with low dose hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone on mortality in patients with septic shock. J Am Med Assoc 288:862. PUBMED Abstract
Hart K, Barton M, Vandenplas M, et al. 2011. Effects of low-dose hydrocortisone therapy on immune function in neonatal horses. Pediatr Res 70:72. PUBMED Abstract
Dowling P, Williams M, Clark T. 1994. Adrenal insufficiency associated with long-term anabolic steroid administration in a horse. J Am Vet Med Assoc 203:1166. PUBMED Abstract
Baker H, Baker I, Epstein V, et al. 1982. Effect of stress on steroid hormone levels in racehorses. Aust Vet J 58:70. PUBMED Abstract
Dybdal N, Gribble D, Madigan J, et al. 1980. Alterations in plasma corticosteroids, insulin and selected metabolites in horses used in endurance rides. Equine Vet J 12:137. PUBMED Abstract
Johnson P, Goetz T, Foreman J, et al. 1995. Pheochromocytoma in two horses. J Am Vet Med Assoc 206:837. PUBMED Abstract
Yovich J, Ducharme N. 1983. Ruptured pheochromocytoma in a mare with colic. J Am Vet Med Assoc 183:462. PUBMED Abstract
Yovich J, Horney F, Hardee G. 1984. Pheochromocytoma in the horse and measurement of norepinephrine levels in horses. Can Vet J 25:21. PUBMED Abstract
De Cock H, MacLachlan N. 1999. Simultaneous occurrence of multiple neoplasms and hyperplasias in the adrenal and thyroid gland of the horse resembling multiple endocrine neoplasia syndrome: case report and retrospective identification of additional cases. Vet Pathol 366:633.
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Butterworth K, Pellegrini-Masini A, Barton M. 2012. Diagnosis and management of hypoaldosteronism without hypoadrenocorticism in an alpaca. J Am Vet Med Assoc 240:748. PUBMED Abstract
Unwin R, Capasso G. 2000. The renal tubular acidoses. J R Soc Med 94:221. PUBMED Abstract

Anhidrosis

Johnson EB, MacKay RJ, Hernandez JA. 2010. An epidemiologic study of anhidrosis in horses in Florida. J Am Vet Med Assoc 236:1091. PUBMED Abstract
Robertshaw D, Taylor CR. 1969. Sweat gland function of the donkey (Equus asinus). J Physiol 205:79. PUBMED Abstract
Snow DH. 1977. Identification of the receptor involved in adrenaline mediated sweating in the horse. Res Vet Sci 23:246. PUBMED Abstract
Hodgson DR, McCutcheon LJ, Byrd SK, et al. 1993. Dissipation of metabolic heat in the horse during exercise. J Appl Physiol 74:1161. PUBMED Abstract
McEwan Jenkinson D, Elder HY, Bovell DL. 2006. Equine sweating and anhidrosis. Part 1—equine sweating. Vet Dermatol 17:361. PUBMED Abstract
Evans CL, Smith DFG, Ross KA, et al. 1957. Physiological factors in the condition of “dry coat” in horses. Vet Rec 69:1.
Jenkinson DM, Montgomery I, Elder HY, et al. 1985. Ultrastructural variations in the sweat glands of anhidrotic horses. Equine Vet J 17:287. PUBMED Abstract
Beadle RE, Norwood GL, Brenwick VA. 1982. Summertime plasma catecholamine concentrations in healthy and anhidrotic horses in Louisiana. Am J Vet Res 43:1446. PUBMED Abstract
Wilson DC, Corbett AD, Steel C, et al. 2007. A preliminary study of the short circuit current (Isc) responses of sweat gland cells from normal and anhidrotic horses to purinergic and adrenergic agonists. Vet Dermatol 18:152. PUBMED Abstract
Mayhew IG, Ferguson HO. 1987. Clinical, clinicopathologic, and epidemiologic features of anhidrosis in central Florida Thoroughbred horses. J Vet Med 1:136. PUBMED Abstract
Maqsood M. 1957. Iodinated casein therapy for the non-sweating syndrome in horses. Vet Rec 101:475.
Breuhaus BA. 2009. Thyroid function in anhidrotic horses. J Vet Int Med 23:168. PUBMED Abstract
Murakami K, Sobue G, Terao S, et al. 1988. Acquired idiopathic generalized anhidrosis: a distinctive clinical syndrome. J Neurol 235:428. PUBMED Abstract
Yoritaka A, Hishima T, Akagi K, et al. 2006. Successful steroid treatment of acquired idiopathic partial hypohidrosis. J Dermatol 33:265. PUBMED Abstract
Bovell DL, Lindsay SL, Corbett AD, et al. 2006. Immunolocalization of aquaporin-5 expression in sweat gland cells from normal and anhidrotic horses. Vet Dermatol 17:17. PUBMED Abstract
Guthrie AJ. 1992. Use of semi-quantitative sweat test in Thoroughbred horses. J S Afr Vet Assoc 63:162. PUBMED Abstract
Hubert JD, Beadle RE. 1998. Equine anhidrosis. Compend Contin Educ Pract Vet 20:846.
Hubert JD, Beadle RE, Norwood G. 2002. Equine anhidrosis. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 18:355. PUBMED Abstract
MacKay RJ. 2008. Quantitative intradermal terbutaline sweat test in horses. Equine Vet J 40:518. PUBMED Abstract
Marsh JH. 1961. Treatment of “dry coat” in Thoroughbreds with vitamin E. Vet Rec 73:1134.
Currie AW, Seager SWJ. 1976. Anhidrosis. Proceed Am Assoc Equine Pract 22:249.
Evans CL. 1966. Physiological mechanisms that underlie sweating in the horse. Br Vet J 122:117. PUBMED Abstract
Read JR, Boston RC, Abraham G, et al. 2012. Effect of prolonged administration of clenbuterol on airway reactivity and sweating in horses with inflammatory airway disease. Am J Vet Res 73:140. PUBMED Abstract
Sin DD, Man SF. 2006. Corticosteroids and adrenoceptor agonists: the compliments for combination therapy in chronic airways diseases. Eur J Pharmacol 533:28-35. PUBMED Abstract
Johnson M. 2006. Molecular mechanisms of beta(2)-adrenergic receptor function, response, and regulation. J Allergy Clin Immunol 117:18. PUBMED Abstract

Thyroid Disease

Breuhaus BA. 2011. Disorders of the equine thyroid gland. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 27:115. PUBMED Abstract
Schlotthauer CF. 1931. The incidence and types of disease of the thyroid gland of adult horses. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 78:211.
Dalefield RR, Palmer DN. 1994. The frequent occurrence of thyroid tumours in aged horses. J Comp Path 110:57. PUBMED Abstract
Ramirez S, McClure JJ, Moore RM, et al. 1998. Hyperthyroidism associated with a thyroid adenocarcinoma in a 21-year-old gelding. J Vet Intern Med 12:475. PUBMED Abstract
Alberts MK, McCann JP, Woods PR. 2000. Hemithyroidectomy in a horse with confirmed hyperthyroidism. J Am Vet Med Assoc 217:1051. PUBMED Abstract
Tan RH, Davies SE, Crisman MV, et al. 2008. Propylthiouracil for treatment of hyperthyroidism in a horse. J Vet Intern Med 22:1253. PUBMED Abstract
Perillo A, Passantino G, Passantino L, et al. 2005. First observation of a Hashimoto thyroiditis–like disease in horses from Eastern Europe: histopathological and immunological findings. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 27:241. PUBMED Abstract
Frank N, Buchanan BR, Elliott SB. 2008. Effects of long-term oral administration of levothyroxine sodium on serum thyroid hormone concentrations, clinicopathologic variables, and echocardiographic measurements in healthy adult horses. Am J Vet Res 69:68. PUBMED Abstract
Sawin CT. 2003. Thyroid disease in older persons, pp 85-105. In Braverman LE (ed), Diseases of the thyroid, ed 2. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ.
Stanley O, Hillidge CJ. 1982. Alopecia associated with hypothyroidism in a horse. Equine Vet J 14:165. PUBMED Abstract
Held JP, Patton CS, Toal RL, et al. 1985. Work intolerance in a horse with thyroid carcinoma. J Am Vet Med Assoc 187:1044. PUBMED Abstract
Hillyer MN, Taylor FGR. 1992. Cutaneous manifestations of suspected hypothyroidism in a horse. Equine Vet Educ 4:116.
Lowe JE, Baldwin BH, Foote RH, et al. 1974. Equine hypothyroidism: the long term effects of thyroidectomy on metabolism and growth in mares and stallions. Cornell Vet 64:276. PUBMED Abstract
Lowe JE, Baldwin BH, Foote RH, et al. 1975. Semen characteristics in thyroidectomized stallions. J Reprod Fertil Suppl 23:81. PUBMED Abstract
Lowe JE, Foote RH, Baldwin BH, et al. 1987. Reproductive patterns in cyclic and pregnant thyroidectomized mares. J Reprod Fertil Suppl 35:281. PUBMED Abstract
Frank N, Sojka JE, Latour MA, et al. 1999. Effect of hypothyroidism on blood lipid concentrations in horses. Am J Vet Res 60:730. PUBMED Abstract
Vischer CM, Foreman JH, Constable PD, et al. 1999. Hemodynamic effects of thyroidectomy in sedentary horses. Am J Vet Res 60:14. PUBMED Abstract
Breuhaus BA. 2002. Thyroid stimulating hormone in euthyroid and hypothyroid horses. J Vet Intern Med 16:109. PUBMED Abstract
Cartmill JA, Thompson DL Jr, Gentry LR, et al. 2003. Effects of dexamethasone, glucose infusion, adrenocorticotropin, and propylthiouracil on plasma leptin concentrations in horses. Domest Anim Endocrinol 24:1. PUBMED Abstract
Frank N, Sojka JE, Latour MA. 2003. Effects of hypothyroidism and withholding of feed on plasma lipid concentrations, concentration and composition of very-low-density lipoprotein, and plasma lipase activity in horses. Am J Vet Res 64:823. PUBMED Abstract
Frank N, Sojka JE, Patterson BW, et al. 2003. Effect of hypothyroidism on kinetics of metabolism of very-low-density lipoprotein in mares. Am J Vet Res 64:1052. PUBMED Abstract
Johnson PJ, Messer NT 4th, Ganjam VK, et al. 2003. Effects of propylthiouracil and bromocryptine on serum concentrations of thyrotrophin and thyroid hormones in normal female horses. Equine Vet J 35:296. PUBMED Abstract
Alexander SL, Irvine CH, Evans MJ. 2004. Inter-relationships between the secretory dynamics of thyrotrophin-releasing hormone, thyrotrophin and prolactin in periovulatory mares: effect of hypothyroidism. J Neuroendocrinol 16:906. PUBMED Abstract
Frank N, Sojka JE, Latour MA. 2004. Effect of hypothyroidism on the blood lipid response to higher dietary fat intake in mares. J Anim Sci 82:2640. PUBMED Abstract
Buff PR, Messer NT 4th, Cogswell AM, et al. 2007. Induction of pulsatile secretion of leptin in horses following thyroidectomy. J Endocrinol 192:353. PUBMED Abstract
Messer NT, Johnson PJ, Refsal KR, et al. 1995. Effect of food deprivation on baseline iodothyronine and cortisol concentrations in healthy, adult horses. Am J Vet Res 56:116. PUBMED Abstract
Morris DD, Garcia M. 1983. Thyroid-stimulating hormone: response test in healthy horses, and effect of phenylbutazone on equine thyroid hormones. Am J Vet Res 44:503. PUBMED Abstract
Morris DD, Garcia M. 1985. Effects of phenylbutazone and anabolic steroids on adrenal and thyroid gland function tests in healthy horses. Am J Vet Res 46:359. PUBMED Abstract
Sojka JE, Johnson MA, Bottoms GD. 1993. Serum triiodothyronine, total thyroxine, and free thyroxine concentrations in horses. Am J Vet Res 54:52. PUBMED Abstract
Ramirez S, Wolfsheimer KJ, Moore RM, et al. 1997. Duration of effects of phenylbutazone on serum total thyroxine and free thyroxine concentrations in horses. J Vet Intern Med 11:371. PUBMED Abstract
Messer NT, Ganjam VK, Nachreiner RF et al. 1995. Effects of dexamethasone administration on serum thyroid hormone concentrations in clinically normal horses. J Am Vet Med Assoc 206:63. PUBMED Abstract
Abraham G, Allersmeier M, Schusser GF, et al. 2011. Serum thyroid hormone, insulin, glucose, triglycerides and protein concentrations in normal horses: association with topical dexamethasone usage. Vet J 188:307. PUBMED Abstract
Graves EA, Schott HC 2nd, Marteniuk JV, et al. 2006. Thyroid hormone responses to endurance exercise. Equine Vet J Suppl 36:32. PUBMED Abstract
Glade MJ, Reimers TJ. 1985. Effects of dietary energy supply on serum thyroxine, triiodothyronine and insulin concentrations in young horses. J Endocrinol 104:93. PUBMED Abstract
Swinker AM, McCurley JR, Jordan ER, et al. 1989. Effects of dietary excesses on equine serum thyroid hormone levels. J Anim Sci 65(Suppl 1):255.
Breuhaus BA, Refsal KR, Beyerlein SL. 2006. Measurement of free thyroxine concentration in horses by equilibrium dialysis. J Vet Intern Med 20:371. PUBMED Abstract
Breuhaus BA, LaFevers DH. 2005. Thyroid function in normal, sick and premature foals. J Vet Intern Med 19:445.
Himler M, Hurcombe SD, Griffin A, et al. 2012. Presumptive nonthyroidal illness syndrome in critically ill foals. Equine Vet J 41(Suppl):43. PUBMED Abstract
Slag MF, Morley JE, Elson MK, et al. 1981. Hypothyroxinemia in critically ill patients as a predictor of high mortality. J Am Med Assoc 245:43. PUBMED Abstract
Kaptein EM, Weiner JM, Robinson WJ, et al. 1982. Relationship of altered thyroid hormone indices to survival in nonthyroidal illnesses. Clin Endocrinol 16:565. PUBMED Abstract
Degroot LJ. 1999. Dangerous dogmas in medicine: the nonthyroidal illness syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84:151. PUBMED Abstract
Chopra IJ. 1997. Euthyroid sick syndrome: is it a misnomer? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82:329. PUBMED Abstract
Kaptein EM, Grieb DA, Spencer CA, et al. 1981. Thyroxine metabolism in the low thyroxine state of critical nonthyroidal illnesses. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 53:764. PUBMED Abstract
Woeber KA, Maddux BA. 1981. Thyroid hormone binding in nonthyroid illness. Metabolism 30:412. PUBMED Abstract
Oppenheimer JH, Schwartz HL, Mariash CN, et al. 1982. Evidence for a factor in the sera of patients with nonthyroidal diseases which inhibits iodothyronine binding by solid matrices, serum proteins, and rat hepatocytes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 54:619.
Evans TJ. 2002. Endocrine alterations associated with ergopeptine alkaloid exposure during equine pregnancy. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 18:371. PUBMED Abstract
Scanlon MF. 1997. Control of TRH and TSH secretion, pp 11-31. In Weetman AP and Grossman A (eds), Pharmacokinetics of the thyroid gland. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY.
Messer NT, Riddle T, Traub-Dargatz JL, et al. 1998. Thyroid hormone levels in Thoroughbred mares and their foals at parturition. Proceedings of the 44th Annual Convention of the American Association of Equine Practitioners, Dec 6-9, Baltimore, MD.
Breuhaus BA. Thyroid function in adult horses consuming endophyte-infected fescue seed. 2003. J Am Vet Med Assoc 223:340. PUBMED Abstract
Frank N, Elliott SB, Boston RC. 2008. Effects of long-term oral administration of levothyroxine sodium on glucose dynamics in healthy adult horses. Am J Vet Res 69:76. PUBMED Abstract
Bilezikian JP, Loeb JN, Gammon DE. 1979. The influence of hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism on the β-adrenergic responsiveness of the turkey erythrocyte. J Clin Invest 63:184. PUBMED Abstract
Stiles GL, Stadel JM, De Lean A, et al. 1981. Hypothyroidism modulates beta adrenergic receptor-adenylase cyclase interactions in rat reticulocytes. J Clin Invest 68:1450. PUBMED Abstract
Lefkowitz RJ, Caron MG, Stiles GL. 1984. Mechanisms of membrane receptor regulation. Biochemical, physiological, and clinical insights derived from studies of the adrenergic receptors. N Engl J Med 310:1570. PUBMED Abstract
Frank N, Sommardahl CS, Eiler H, et al. 2005. Effects of oral administration of levothyroxine sodium on concentrations of plasma lipids, concentration and composition of very-low-density lipoproteins, and glucose dynamics in healthy adult mares. Am J Vet Res 66:1032. PUBMED Abstract
Maqsood M. 1957. Iodinated casein therapy for the non-sweating syndrome in horses. Vet Rec 101:475.
Breuhaus BA. 2009. Thyroid function in anhidrotic horses. J Vet Intern Med 23:168. PUBMED Abstract
Waldron-Mease E. 1979. Hypothyroidism and myopathy in racing Thoroughbreds and Standardbreds. J Equine Med Surg 3:124.
Harris P, Marlin D, Gray J. 1992. Equine thyroid function tests: a preliminary investigation. Br Vet J 148:71. PUBMED Abstract
Valberg SJ, Mickelson JR, Gallant EM, et al. 1999. Exertional rhabdomyolysis in Quarter Horses and Thoroughbreds: one syndrome, multiple aetiologies. Equine Vet J 30(Suppl):533. PUBMED Abstract
Gutierrez CV, Riddle WT, Bramlage LR. 2002. Serum thyroxine concentrations and pregnancy rates 15 to 16 days after ovulation in broodmares. J Am Vet Med Assoc 220:64. PUBMED Abstract
Meredith TB, Dobrinski I. 2004. Thyroid function and pregnancy status in broodmares. J Am Vet Med Assoc 224:892. PUBMED Abstract
Mendoza FJ, Perez-Ecija RA, Toribio RE, et al. 2013. Thyroid hormone concentrations differ between donkeys and horses. Equine Vet J 45:214. PUBMED Abstract
Beech J, Garcia M. 1985. Hormonal response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone in healthy horses and in horses with pituitary adenoma. Am J Vet Res 46:1941. PUBMED Abstract
Chen CL, Li WI. 1986. Effect of thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) on serum levels of thyroid hormones in Thoroughbred mares. J Equine Vet Sci 6:58.
Held JP, Oliver JW. 1984. A sampling protocol for the thyrotropin-stimulating test in the horse. J Am Vet Med Assoc 184:326. PUBMED Abstract
Lothrup CD, Nolan HL. 1986. Equine thyroid function assessment with the thyrotropin-releasing hormone response test. Am J Vet Res 47:942. PUBMED Abstract
Sommardahl CS, Frank N, Elliott SB, et al. 2005. Effects of oral administration of levothyroxine sodium on serum concentrations of thyroid gland hormones and responses to injections of thyrotropin-releasing hormone in healthy adult mares. Am J Vet Res 66:1025. PUBMED Abstract
Kaptein EM, MacIntyre SS, Weiner JM, et al. 1981. Free thyroxine estimate in nonthyroidal illness: comparison of eight methods. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 52:1073. PUBMED Abstract
Ekins RP. 1985. Principles of measuring free thyroid hormone concentrations in serum. NucCompact 16:305.
Alexander NM. 1986. Free thyroxin in serum: labeled thyroxin-analog methods fall short of their mark. Clin Chem 32:417. PUBMED Abstract
Nelson JC, Tomei RT. 1988. Direct determination of free thyroxin in undiluted serum by equilibrium dialysis/radioimmunoassay. Clin Chem 34:1737. PUBMED Abstract
Herbomez M, Forzy G, Gasser F, et al. 2003. Clinical evaluation of nine free thyroxine assays: persistent problems in particular populations. Clin Chem Lab Med 41:942. PUBMED Abstract
Schachter S, Nelson RW, Scott-Moncrieff C, et al. 2004. Comparison of serum-free thyroxine concentrations determined by standard equilibrium dialysis, modified equilibrium dialysis, and 5 radioimmunoassays in dogs. J Vet Intern Med 18:259.
Chen CL, McNulty ME, McNulty BA, et al. 1984. Serum levels of thyroxine and triiodothyronine in mature horses following oral administration of synthetic thyroxine (Synthroid R). J Equine Vet Sci 4:5.
Frank N, Sojka J, Messer NT. 2002. Equine thyroid dysfunction. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 18:305. PUBMED Abstract
Silver M, Fowden AL, Knox J, et al. 1991. Relationship between circulating tri-iodothyronine and cortisol in the perinatal period in the foal. J Reprod Fert 44(Suppl):619. PUBMED Abstract
Irvine CHG, Evans MJ. 1975. Post-natal changes in total and free thyroxine and triiodothyronine in foal serum. J Reprod Fertil 23(Suppl):709. PUBMED Abstract
Chen CL, Riley AM. 1981. Serum thyroxine and triiodothyronine concentrations in neonatal foals and mature horses. Am J Vet Res 42:1415. PUBMED Abstract
Kaciuba-Uscilko H. 1971. The effect of previous thyroxine administration on the metabolic response to adrenaline in new-born pigs. Biol Neonate 19:220. PUBMED Abstract
Hitchcock KR. 1979. Hormones and the lung. I. Thyroid hormones and glucocorticoids in lung development. Anat Rec 194:15. PUBMED Abstract
Irvine CHG. 1984. Hypothyroidism in the foal. Equine Vet J 16:302. PUBMED Abstract
Van Wassenaer AG, Kok JH, Briet JM, et al. 1997. Thyroid function in preterm newborns; is T4 treatment required in infants <27 weeks' gestational age? Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes. 105(Suppl 4):12. PUBMED Abstract
Fisher DA. 1999. Hypothyroxinemia in premature infants: is thyroxine treatment necessary? Thyroid 9:715. PUBMED Abstract
LaFranchi S. 1999. Thyroid function in the preterm infant. Thyroid 9:71. PUBMED Abstract
Yeung MY, Smyth JP. 2002. Hormonal factors in the morbidities associated with extreme prematurity and the potential benefits of hormonal supplement. Biol Neonate 81:1. PUBMED Abstract
Suzumura H, Nitta A, Tsuboi Y, et al. 2011. Thyroxine for transient hypothyroxinemia and cerebral palsy in extremely preterm infants. Pediatr Int 53:463. PUBMED Abstract
Schoenberger W, Grimm W, Emmrich P, et al. 1979. Thyroid administration lowers mortality in premature infants. Lancet 2:1181. PUBMED Abstract
Okada J, Iwata S, Hirose A, et al. 2011. Levothyroxine replacement therapy and refractory hypotension out of transitional period in preterm infants. Clin Endocrinol 74:354. PUBMED Abstract
Arlt W, Allolio B. 2003. Adrenal insufficiency. Lancet 361:1881. PUBMED Abstract
Baker HJ, Lindsay JR. 1968. Equine goiter due to excess iodide. J Am Vet Med Assoc 153:1618. PUBMED Abstract
Drew B, Barber WP, Williams DG. 1975. The effect of excess dietary iodine on pregnant mares and foals. Vet Rec 97:93. PUBMED Abstract
Osame S, Shigeru I. 1994. Clinicopathological observations on thoroughbred foals with enlarged thyroid gland. J Vet Med Sci 56:771. PUBMED Abstract
McLaughlin BG, Doige CE. 1982. A study of ossification of carpal and tarsal bones in normal and hypothyroid foals. Can Vet J 23:164. PUBMED Abstract
McLaughlin BG, Doige CE, McLaughlan PS. 1986. Thyroid hormone levels in foals with congenital musculoskeletal lesions. Can Vet J 27:264. PUBMED Abstract
Allen AL, Doige CE, Fretz PB, et al. 1994. Hyperplasia of the thyroid gland and concurrent musculoskeletal deformities in western Canadian foals: reexamination of a previously described syndrome. Can Vet J 35:31. PUBMED Abstract
Allen AL, Townsend HGG, Doige CE, et al. 1996. A case-control study of the congenital hypothyroidism and dysmaturity syndrome of foals. Can Vet J 37:349. PUBMED Abstract
Allen AL, Fretz PB, Card CE, et al. 1998. The effects of partial thyroidectomy on the development of the equine fetus. Equine Vet J 30:53. PUBMED Abstract
Hines MT, Gay C, Talcott T. 1997. Congenital hypothyroidism and dysmaturity syndrome of foals: diagnosis and possible risk factors. Proceedings of the 15th American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine, May, Lake Buena Vista, FL.

Equine Metabolic Syndrome

Frank N, Geor RJ, Bailey SR, et al. 2010. Equine metabolic syndrome. J Vet Intern Med 24:467. PUBMED Abstract
Henneke DR, Potter GD, Kreider JL, et al. 1983. Relationship between condition score, physical measurements and body fat percentage in mares. Equine Vet J 15:371. PUBMED Abstract
Frank N, Elliott SB, Brandt LE, et al. 2006. Physical characteristics, blood hormone concentrations, and plasma lipid concentrations in obese horses with insulin resistance. J Am Vet Med Assoc 228:1383. PUBMED Abstract
Carter RA, Geor RJ, Burton Staniar W, et al. 2009. Apparent adiposity assessed by standardised scoring systems and morphometric measurements in horses and ponies. Vet J 179:204. PUBMED Abstract
McCue M, Schutlz NE, Martinson K, et al. 2012. Characterization of the equine metabolic syndrome phenotype—Part I: biochemistry, morphometrics and breed comparisons, abstract. Proceedings of the 30th Annual ACVIM Forum, May 30-Jun 2, New Orleans, LA.
Durham AE, Hughes KJ, Cottle HJ, et al. 2009. Type 2 diabetes mellitus with pancreatic beta cell dysfunction in 3 horses confirmed with minimal model analysis. Equine Vet J 41:924. PUBMED Abstract
Ramirez S, Wolfsheimer KJ, Moore RM, et al. 1997. Duration of effects of phenylbutazone on serum total thyroxine and free thyroxine concentrations in horses. J Vet Intern Med 11:371. PUBMED Abstract
Christensen RA, Malinowski K, Massenzio AM, et al. 1997. Acute effects of short-term feed deprivation and refeeding on circulating concentrations of metabolites, insulin-like growth factor I, insulin-like growth factor binding proteins, somatotropin, and thyroid hormones in adult geldings. J Anim Sci 75:1351. PUBMED Abstract
Breuhaus BA, Refsal KR, Beyerlein SL. 2006. Measurement of free thyroxine concentration in horses by equilibrium dialysis. J Vet Intern Med 20:371. PUBMED Abstract
Schuver A, Frank N, Chameroy K, et al. 2010. Use of an oral sugar test to assess insulin sensitivity in healthy and insulin-resistant horses (abstract). J Vet Intern Med 24:780.
Borer KE, Bailey SR, Menzies-Gow NJ, et al. 2012. Effect of feeding glucose, fructose, and inulin on blood glucose and insulin concentrations in normal ponies and those predisposed to laminitis. J Anim Sci 90:3003. PUBMED Abstract
Bertin FR, Sojka-Kritchevsky JE. 2012. Comparison of a 2-step insulin-response test to conventional insulin-sensitivity testing in horses. Domest Anim Endocrinol 44:19. PUBMED Abstract
Eiler H, Frank N, Andrews FM, et al. 2005. Physiologic assessment of blood glucose homeostasis via combined intravenous glucose and insulin testing in horses. Am J Vet Res 66:1598. PUBMED Abstract
Treiber KH, Kronfeld DS, Hess TM, et al. 2006. Evaluation of genetic and metabolic predispositions and nutritional risk factors for pasture-associated laminitis in ponies. J Am Vet Med Assoc 228:1538. PUBMED Abstract
Vick MM, Adams AA, Murphy BA, et al. 2007. Relationships among inflammatory cytokines, obesity, and insulin sensitivity in the horse. J Anim Sci 85:1144. PUBMED Abstract
Gentry LR, Thompson DL Jr, Gentry GT Jr, et al. 2002. The relationship between body condition, leptin, and reproductive and hormonal characteristics of mares during the seasonal anovulatory period. J Anim Sci 80:2695. PUBMED Abstract
Wooldridge AA, Edwards HG, Plaisance EP, et al. 2012. Evaluation of high-molecular weight adiponectin in horses. Am J Vet Res 73:1230. PUBMED Abstract
Burns TA, Geor RJ, Mudge MC, et al. 2010. Proinflammatory cytokine and chemokine gene expression profiles in subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissue depots of insulin-resistant and insulin-sensitive light breed horses. J Vet Intern Med 24:932. PUBMED Abstract
Asplin KE, Sillence MN, Pollitt CC, et al. 2007. Induction of laminitis by prolonged hyperinsulinaemia in clinically normal ponies. Vet J 174:530. PUBMED Abstract
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Treiber KH, Kronfeld DS, Hess TM, et al. 2005. Use of proxies and reference quintiles obtained from minimal model analysis for determination of insulin sensitivity and pancreatic beta-cell responsiveness in horses. Am J Vet Res 66:2114. PUBMED Abstract
Toth F, Frank N, Martin-Jimenez T, et al. 2010. Measurement of C-peptide concentrations and responses to somatostatin, glucose infusion, and insulin resistance in horses. Equine Vet J 42:149. PUBMED Abstract
Mehran AE, Templeman NM, Brigidi GS, et al. 2012. Hyperinsulinemia drives diet-induced obesity independently of brain insulin production. Cell Metab 16:723. PUBMED Abstract
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Carter RA, Treiber KH, Geor RJ, et al. 2009. Prediction of incipient pasture-associated laminitis from hyperinsulinaemia, hyperleptinaemia and generalised and localised obesity in a cohort of ponies. Equine Vet J 41:171. PUBMED Abstract
Frank N, Buchanan BR, Elliott SB. 2008. Effects of long-term oral administration of levothyroxine sodium on serum thyroid hormone concentrations, clinicopathologic variables, and echocardiographic measurements in healthy adult horses. Am J Vet Res 69:68. PUBMED Abstract
Durham AE, Rendle DI, Newton JE. 2008. The effect of metformin on measurements of insulin sensitivity and beta cell response in 18 horses and ponies with insulin resistance. Equine Vet J 40:493. PUBMED Abstract
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Durham AE, Rendle DI, Rutledge F, et al. 2012. The effects of metformin hydrochloride on intestinal glucose absorption and use of tests for hyperinsulinaemia (abstract). Proceedings of the 30th Annual ACVIM Forum, May 30-Jun 2, New Orleans, LA.

Parathyroid Gland, Calcium and Phosphorus Regulation

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Breidenbach A, Schlumbohm C, Harmeyer J. 1998. Peculiarities of vitamin D and of the calcium and phosphate homeostatic system in horses. Vet Res 29:173. PUBMED Abstract
Maenpaa PH, Lappetelainen R, Virkkunen J. 1987. Serum retinol, 25-hydroxyvitamin D and alpha-tocopherol of racing trotters in Finland. Equine Vet J 19:237. PUBMED Abstract
Maenpaa PH, Pirhonenn A, Koskinen E. 1988. Vitamin A, E and D nutrition in mares and foals during the winter season: effect of feeding two different vitamin-mineral concentrates. J Anim Sci 66:1424. PUBMED Abstract
Maenpaa PH, Koskinen T, Koskinen E. 1988. Serum profiles of vitamins A, E and D in mares and foals during different seasons. J Anim Sci 66:1418.
Toribio RE, Kohn CW, Sams RA, et al. 2003. Hysteresis and calcium set-point for the calcium parathyroid hormone relationship in healthy horses. Gen Comp Endocrinol 130:279. PUBMED Abstract
Toribio RE, Kohn CW, Capen CC, et al. 2003. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) secretion, PTH mRNA and calcium-sensing receptor mRNA expression in equine parathyroid cells, and effects of interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha on equine parathyroid cell function. J Mol Endocrinol 31:609. PUBMED Abstract
Schryver HF, Craig PH, Hintz HF, et al. 1970. The site of calcium absorption in the horse. J Nutr 100:1127. PUBMED Abstract
McKenzie EC, Valberg SJ, Godden SM, et al. 2002. Plasma and urine electrolyte and mineral concentrations in Thoroughbred horses with recurrent exertional rhabdomyolysis after consumption of diets varying in cation-anion balance. Am J Vet Res 63:1053. PUBMED Abstract
Glade MJ, Krook L. 1982. Glucocorticoid-induced inhibition of osteolysis and the development of osteopetrosis, osteonecrosis and osteoporosis. Cornell Vet 72:76. PUBMED Abstract
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Toribio RE. 2007. Essentials of equine renal and urinary tract physiology. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 23:533. PUBMED Abstract
Toribio RE, Kohn CW, Chew DJ, et al. 2001. Comparison of serum parathyroid hormone and ionized calcium and magnesium concentrations and fractional urinary clearance of calcium and phosphorus in healthy horses and horses with enterocolitis. Am J Vet Res 62:938. PUBMED Abstract
Endres DB, Rude RK. 2006. Mineral and bone metabolism, pp 1891-1963. In Burtis CA, Ashwood ER, Bruns DE (eds), Tietz textbook of clinical chemistry and molecular diagnostics. Saunders, St Louis, MO.
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Wysolmerski JJ, Stewart AF. 1998. The physiology of parathyroid hormone-related protein: an emerging role as a developmental factor. Annu Rev Physiol 60:431. PUBMED Abstract
Kuro-o M. 2006. Klotho as a regulator of fibroblast growth factor signaling and phosphate/calcium metabolism. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 15:437. PUBMED Abstract
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Bergwitz C, Juppner H. 2010. Regulation of phosphate homeostasis by PTH, vitamin D, and FGF23. Annu Rev Med 61:91. PUBMED Abstract
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Brown EM, MacLeod RJ. 2001. Extracellular calcium sensing and extracellular calcium signaling. Physiol Rev 81:239. PUBMED Abstract
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Ritchie G, Kerstan D, Dai LJ, et al. 2001. 1,25(OH)(2)D(3) stimulates Mg2+ uptake into MDCT cells: modulation by extracellular Ca2+ and Mg2+. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 280:F868. PUBMED Abstract
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Karcher LF, Le Net JL, Turner BF, et al. 1990. Pseudohyperparathyroidism in a mare associated with squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. Cornell Vet 80:153. PUBMED Abstract
Marr CM, Love S, Pirie HM. 1989. Clinical, ultrasonographic and pathological findings in a horse with splenic lymphosarcoma and pseudohyperparathyroidism. Equine Vet J 21:221. PUBMED Abstract
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Refsal KR, Provencher-Bolliger AL, Graham PA, et al. 2001. Update on the diagnosis and treatment of disorders of calcium regulation. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 31:1043. PUBMED Abstract
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Aguilera-Tejero E, Estepa JC, Lopez I, et al. 2000. Polycystic kidneys as a cause of chronic renal failure and secondary hypoparathyroidism in a horse. Equine Vet J 32:167. PUBMED Abstract
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Frank N, Hawkins JF, Couetil LL, et al. 1998. Primary hyperparathyroidism with osteodystrophia fibrosa of the facial bones in a pony. J Am Vet Med Assoc 212:84. PUBMED Abstract
Peauroi JR, Fisher DJ, Mohr FC, et al. 1998. Primary hyperparathyroidism caused by a functional parathyroid adenoma in a horse. J Am Vet Med Assoc 212:1915. PUBMED Abstract
Wong D, Sponseller B, Miles K, et al. 2004. Failure of technetium Tc 99m sestamibi scanning to detect abnormal parathyroid tissue in a horse and a mule with primary hyperparathyroidism. J Vet Intern Med 18:589. PUBMED Abstract
Ronen N, Van Heerden J, van Amstel SR. 1992. Clinical and biochemistry findings, and parathyroid hormone concentrations in three horses with secondary hyperparathyroidism. J S Afr Vet Assoc 63:134. PUBMED Abstract
Elfers RS, Bayly WM, Brobst DF, et al. 1986. Alterations in calcium, phosphorus and C-terminal parathyroid hormone levels in equine acute renal disease. Cornell Vet 76:317. PUBMED Abstract
Harrington DD. 1982. Acute vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) toxicosis in horses: case report and experimental studies. J Am Vet Med Assoc 180:867. PUBMED Abstract
Harrington DD, Page EH. 1983. Acute vitamin D3 toxicosis in horses: case reports and experimental studies of the comparative toxicity of vitamins D2 and D3. J Am Vet Med Assoc 182:1358. PUBMED Abstract
Aguilera-Tejero E, Garfia B, Estepa JC, et al. 1998. Effects of exercise and EDTA administration on blood ionized calcium and parathyroid hormone in horses. Am J Vet Res 59:1605. PUBMED Abstract
Aguilera-Tejero E, Estepa JC, Lopez I, et al. 2001. Plasma ionized calcium and parathyroid hormone concentrations in horses after endurance rides. J Am Vet Med Assoc 219:488. PUBMED Abstract
Beyer MJ, Freestone JF, Reimer JM, et al. 1997. Idiopathic hypocalcemia in foals. J Vet Intern Med 11:356. PUBMED Abstract
Helman RG, Edwards WC. 1997. Clinical features of blister beetle poisoning in equids: 70 cases (1983-1996). J Am Vet Med Assoc 211:1018. PUBMED Abstract
Dart AJ, Snyder JR, Spier SJ, et al. 1992. Ionized calcium concentration in horses with surgically managed gastrointestinal disease: 147 cases (1988-1990). J Am Vet Med Assoc 201:1244. PUBMED Abstract
Delesalle C, Dewulf J, Lefebvre RA, et al. 2005. Use of plasma ionized calcium levels and Ca2+ substitution response patterns as prognostic parameters for ileus and survival in colic horses. Vet Q 27:157. PUBMED Abstract
Garcia-Lopez JM, Provost PJ, Rush JE, et al. 2001. Prevalence and prognostic importance of hypomagnesemia and hypocalcemia in horses that have colic surgery. Am J Vet Res 62:7. PUBMED Abstract
Magdesian KG, Hirsh DC, Jang SS, et al. 2002. Characterization of Clostridium difficile isolates from foals with diarrhea: 28 cases (1993-1997). J Am Vet Med Assoc 220:67. PUBMED Abstract
Carlson GP, Mansmann RA. 1974. Serum electrolyte and plasma protein alterations in horses used in endurance rides. J Am Vet Med Assoc 165:262. PUBMED Abstract
Hudson NP, Church DB, Trevena J, et al. 1999. Primary hypoparathyroidism in two horses. Aust Vet J 77:504. PUBMED Abstract
Baird JD. 1971. Lactation tetany (eclampsia) in a Shetland pony mare. Aust Vet J 47:402. PUBMED Abstract
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Sevinga M, Barkema HW, Hesselink JW. 2002. Serum calcium and magnesium concentrations and the use of a calcium-magnesium-borogluconate solution in the treatment of Friesian mares with retained placenta. Theriogenology 57:941. PUBMED Abstract
Vandeplassche M, Spincemaille J, Bouters R. 1971. Aetiology, pathogenesis and treatment of retained placenta in the mare. Equine Vet J 3:144. PUBMED Abstract
Hudson NP, Prince DP, Mayhew IG, et al. 2005. Investigation and management of a cluster of cases of equine retained fetal membranes in Highland ponies. Vet Rec 157:85. PUBMED Abstract
Swartzman JA, Hintz HF, Schryver HF. 1978. Inhibition of calcium absorption in ponies fed diets containing oxalic acid. Am J Vet Res 39:1621. PUBMED Abstract
Perkins G, Valberg SJ, Madigan JM, et al. 1998. Electrolyte disturbances in foals with severe rhabdomyolysis. J Vet Intern Med 12:173. PUBMED Abstract
Tennant B, Lowe JE, Tasker JB. 1981. Hypercalcemia and hypophosphatemia in ponies following bilateral nephrectomy. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 167:365. PUBMED Abstract
Clarke CJ, Roeder PL, Dixon PM. 1996. Nasal obstruction caused by nutritional osteodystrophia fibrosa in a group of Ethiopian horses. Vet Rec 138:568. PUBMED Abstract
Denny JE. 1985. Equine blood serum calcium and phosphorus concentrations in progressive nutritional hyperparathyroidism. J S Afr Vet Assoc 56:123. PUBMED Abstract
McKenzie RA, Gartner RJ, Blaney BJ, et al. 1981. Control of nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism in grazing horses with calcium plus phosphorus supplementation. Aust Vet J 57:554. PUBMED Abstract
Stewart J, Liyou O, Wilson G. 2010. Bighead in horses—not an ancient disease. Aust Equine Vet 29:55.
Krook L, Lowe JE. 1964. Nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism in the horse. Pathol Vet 65:26.
Argenzio RA, Lowe JE, Hintz HF, et al. 1974. Calcium and phosphorus homeostasis in horses. J Nutr 104:18. PUBMED Abstract
Estepa JC, Guilera-Tejero E, Zafra R, et al. 2006. An unusual case of generalized soft-tissue mineralization in a suckling foal. Vet Pathol 43:64. PUBMED Abstract
Krook L, Wasserman RH, Shively JN, et al. 1975. Hypercalcemia and calcinosis in Florida horses: implication of the shrub, Cestrum diurnum, as the causative agent. Cornell Vet 65:26. PUBMED Abstract
Krook L, Wasserman RH, McEntee K, et al. 1975. Cestrum diurnum poisoning in Florida cattle. Cornell Vet 65:557. PUBMED Abstract
Muylle E, Oyaert W, de Roose P, et al. 1974. Hypercalcaemia and mineralisation of non-osseous tissues in horses due to vitamin-D toxicity. Zentralbl Veterinarmed A 21:638. PUBMED Abstract
Boland RF. 1988. Solanum malacoxylon: a toxic plant which affects animal calcium metabolism. Biomed Environ Sci 1:414. PUBMED Abstract
Kasali OB, Krook L, Pond WG, et al. 1977. Cestrum diurnum intoxication in normal and hyperparathyroid pigs. Cornell Vet 67:190. PUBMED Abstract
Worker NA, Carrillo BJ. 1967. “Enteque seco,” calcification and wasting in grazing animals in the Argentine. Nature 215:72. PUBMED Abstract
Boland R, Skliar M, Curino A, et al. 2003. Vitamin D compounds in plants. Plant Sci 164:357.
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Braun U, Diener M, Hilbe M, et al. 2000. [Enzootic calcinosis in 16 cows from 6 dairy farms in Unterengadin]. Schweiz Arch Tierheilkd 142:333. PUBMED Abstract
Braun U, Diener M, Camenzind D, et al. 2000. Enzootic calcinosis in goats caused by golden oat grass (Trisetum flavescens). Vet Rec 146:161. PUBMED Abstract
Suva LJ, Winslow GA, Wettenhall RE, et al. 1987. A parathyroid hormone-related protein implicated in malignant hypercalcemia: cloning and expression. Science 237:893. PUBMED Abstract
Sellers RS, Toribio RE, Blomme EA. 2001. Idiopathic systemic granulomatous disease and macrophage expression of PTHrP in a miniature pony. J Comp Pathol 125:214. PUBMED Abstract
Reijerkerk EP, Veldhuis Kroeze EJ, Sloet van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan MM. 2008. Generalized sarcoidosis in two horses. Tijdschr Diergeneeskd 133:654. PUBMED Abstract
Peters M, Graf G, Pohlenz J. 2003. Idiopathic systemic granulomatous disease with encephalitis in a horse. J Vet Med A Physiol Pathol Clin Med 50:108. PUBMED Abstract
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Bovine Metabolic Disorders

Ketosis of Ruminants (Acetonemia)

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Cole WJ, Eppard PJ, Boysen BG, et al. Response of dairy cows to high doses of a sustained-release bovine somatotropin administered during two lactations. 2. Health and reproduction. J Dairy Sci 75:111, 1992. PUBMED Abstract
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Lacetera N, Franci O, Scalia D, et al. 2002. Effects of nonesterified fatty acids and beta-hydroxybutyrate on functions of mononuclear cells obtained from ewes. Am J Vet Res 63:414. PUBMED Abstract
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Kauppinen K. 1983. Correlation of whole blood concentrations of acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, glucose and milk yield in dairy cows as studied under field conditions. Acta Vet Scand 24:337. PUBMED Abstract
Baird GD. Primary ketosis in the high-producing dairy cow: clinical and subclinical disorders, treatment, prevention, and outlook. J Dairy Sci 65:1, 1982. PUBMED Abstract
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Calcium, Magnesium, and Phosphorus

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Hypokalemia Syndrome in Cattle

Sweeney RW. 1999. Treatment of potassium balance disorders. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract 15:609. PUBMED Abstract
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Bovine Somatotropin

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Lucy MC, Hauser SD, Eppard PJ, et al. 1993. Variants of somatotropin in cattle: gene frequencies in major dairy breeds and associated milk production. Domest Anim Endocrinol. 10:325. PUBMED Abstract
Miller MA, WFAS. 1993. Bovine somatotropins. In the 40th Meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. Toxicological evaluation of certain veterinary drug residues in food. Centre for Veterinary Medicine, Rockville, MD.
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Etherton TD, Bauman DE. 1998. Biology of somatotropin in growth and lactation of domestic animals. Physiol Rev 78:745. PUBMED Abstract
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Large Animal Internal Medicine

Chapter 41 Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases

Equine Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders

Pituitary and Hypothalamus

Adrenal Glands

Anhidrosis

Thyroid Disease

Equine Metabolic Syndrome

Parathyroid Gland, Calcium and Phosphorus Regulation

Bovine Metabolic Disorders

Ketosis of Ruminants (Acetonemia)

Calcium, Magnesium, and Phosphorus

Hypokalemia Syndrome in Cattle

Bovine Somatotropin